Factors Affecting Marriage Decision

Question: Discuss about factors affecting marriage decision. Answer: Marriage decisions are influenced by several factors in society. First is the social norms associated with marriage. Marriage decision depends on the type of society and family values in which a person lives. Often female are discriminated in backward countries leading to early child marriage while in advanced countries marriage is delayed due to career goals. Marriage depends on existing marriage laws in particular countries. Different countries have different marriage age and restrictions. Some can't marry unless they attain a legal age. In some countries, same-sex marriage is allowed while in some it is prohibited. Social status influences the way individual plan their marriage decision. Any person who is economically sound plans their marriage in a grand way while those who are poor marry in cost effective way (Jensen, Robert). The parent-child relationship is crucial to raising a child. Depending on the family type, nature of the child and their values differ. A child raised in the joint family while a one living with just parents or single parents have different moral and social values instilled in them. The social and economic status of parents helps in good upbringing and education of the child. Maintaining a jovial atmosphere at home and friendly attitude with a child will help a child to develop into a confident and responsible citizen (Oppenheimer, Valerie Kincade). References: Jensen, Robert. "Do labor market opportunities affect young women's work and family decisions? Experimental evidence from India."The Quarterly Journal of Economics(2012): qjs002. Oppenheimer, Valerie Kincade.Work and the family: A study in social demography. Elsevier, 2013.

Erwin Panofskys Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism Essay Sample Example For Students

Erwin Panofskys Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism Essay Sample Erwin Panoplys Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism presents a compelling connection between the architectural styles of Gothic Cathedrals and the order and form of the Scholastic school of thought. Focusing on the 100 mile zone around Paris during the years between 1130-40 and 1270 where and when Scholasticism was the dominate theory of education and Gothic architecture began to take a stronghold over the ageing Romanesque style. In Panoplys own words A connection between Gothic art and Scholasticism which is more concrete than a mere parallelism He connection which I have in mind is a genuine cause-and-effect elation. But is there a more meaningful conviction that Pompanos is trying to present by explaining this cause and effect? Before diving deeper into Panoplys theory, the terms Scholasticism and Gothic Architecture need to be defined. Scholasticism is a method of learning taught by the academics of medieval universities from the 1 lath until the 1 5th century, originating in Paris. This method of learning was based on dialectical reasoning, with the purpose of answering a question or settling a disagreement through the use of the Scholastic method. The Scholastic method would compare two or more writings of a related source. The sources would be read aloud to a class of pupils or academics to point of the contradictions between the texts. Then through a series of dialectics focusing on philological and or logical (commonly Aristotelian logic after the Second Crusade circa 1149) analysis the two sides of the contradiction would be interoperable to essentially agree with each other. Gothic Architecture is a style of architecture originating near Paris with the construction of the abbey church of Saint-Denis. The gothic style flourished during the High and Late Medieval periods. Classic features found in gothic architecture include thin columns and surrounding walls supported by flying buttresses, stained- glass, ribbed vaults, and detailed sculptural elements. Gothic vaulting allowed for the pointed doorways, large windows and high ceilings creating a high heavenly environment worthy of being described as the house of God. The connection between Gothic architecture and Scholasticism begins with the town professionals of each field. The two most well read professionals in the medieval town would have been the scholar and the architect. The scholar commonly a cleric devoted his life to writing and teaching. As well as being properly schooled in the Scholastic method. While the architect who frequently rose from an ordinary laborer to the overseer of an entire structure through hard work and diligence would become a well traveled, often well read man. The architect himself had come to be looked upon as a kind of Scholastic The Scholastics were the first medieval educators to divide books in to chapters leading the reader step by step, from one proposition to the other and is always kept in termed as to the progress to his process. This orderly concept of Scholasticism was applied to Gothic architecture through the denaturized structure of the Gothic portal. In imposing order upon the formal arrangement, simultaneously clarifies the narrative content. The Scholastics had no problem following the orders of the authorities; rather they prided themselves on exploiting the authorities for their own gain then expressing their own thoughts. The builders of High Gothic cathedrals also had no problem following two limited designs both sanctioned by authority on the structures of the rose window in the west fade, the wall beneath the clerestory and the nave piers. Pompanos closes his work by explaining the only piece of hard evidence connecting Scholastic thought with High Gothic Architecture, an inscription on a tablet of the deal ground plan of a chives. .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f , .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f .postImageUrl , .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f , .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f:hover , .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f:visited , .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f:active { border:0!important; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f:active , .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udd980c4fc92f55310b1477bede884a0f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Description Of A House EssayTwo High Gothic architects discussing a squashes, and a third architect commenting on the dialogue with the strictly Scholastic term disparate instead of the more common term colloquia. The result of this dispute is creation of the chives the perfect Scholastic answer to the east end of the Gothic cathedral, using semi-circular chapels instead of classic square chapels creating a more efficient vaulting system with the use of one keystone per chapel. Here Scholastic dialectics has driven architectural thinking to a point where it almost ceased to be architectural. Panoplys final sentence verifies with hard evidence the effect of Scholasticism on Gothic architecture. Erwin Panoplys theory on the cause and effect relationship between Gothic architecture and Scholasticism proves to be much more then Just a historical parallel. The concept of one school of though taking over the most educated city of the western world allowing the corruption of the Bible is an unsettling fact. The Bible, the guiding text for over 30% of the population of the modern world and the most influential text in the formation and foundation of the most dominate nation in the oral today, the United States of America.

Should We Allow Gay Marriages as Civil Unions

Iagos First Soliloquy Essay Example

Iagos First Soliloquy Essay Example Iagos First Soliloquy Paper Iagos First Soliloquy Paper In my opinion Iago is a crude character with evil imbedded into his soul a typical villain in a Shakespearian play. The line put money in they purse shows Iago as his manipulative self. I believe his mind is fixed on causing hurt and destruction, fuelled by his jealousy over Othello and his wife. This view is outlined well by the critic Helen Gardener. Malice is motiveless. This view is shown well in operatic version of Othello, in which Iago states that vile is [his] my tissue, which just shows that Iago does this to Othello because he is evil, not through jealousy. In comparison to this the view of Neville Coghill is that Iago has been turned to this evil plot because of the actions of Othello. However I really dont think this is a feasible argument simply because, Iago continues with his evil plans after Cassio has been sacked and Othello tells Iago he can be his most trusted lieutenant so it is absurd to believe that Iago is simply plotting a revenge attack on Othello. This is therefore why Iagos evil actions are so shocking because he has no real motive. He is clearly jealous of Othello and believes he should be in a better position than he is because of the line, know my price. Shakespeare shows Iago at first to have strong feelings of jealousy and bitterness towards Othello. Lines such as his own pride and purposes shows how Shakespeare wants us to know how jealous Iago is of Othello, by using insults and sly comments. The reader therefore understands Iagos dominant emotions of anger and jealousy. Iago is a man who insults those who have done better than him often throughout the play, A Florentine; with the language used here Shakespeare is clearly conveying to the audience this feeling of jealousy, which is to set the whole story. There are many literary techniques used in the play to portray this evil image of Iago. In his first speech he uses words of absolute hatred when referring to Othello; he expresses his monstrous wish to abuse because he has this hate inside him. As he says framed to make women false, Iagos view of women is shown, also the way he uses Emilia to steal the handkerchief is devious and when he states that he will turn her [Desdemonas] virtue in pitch In Othellos speech in Act 5 Scene 2 it is clear that Iagos poison has influenced Othello and almost transformed Othello into a man like Iago. She was foul. Othello would never describe a woman like this but Iagos view of women has influenced him and therefore he is now thinking like Iago. His nature is shown through the pace at which he talks; he speaks in continuous prose which is fast paced, just like Iago. The irony over Cassio being a proper man shows the audience what a crude character he is and also goes some way to show how he treats people he doesnt like. The simile is as luscious as locusts I believe is a summary of Iago, he is a great person at first until you realise what he is made up of; evil, hatred and jealousy. Rhetorical questions are also used to create make Roderigo think, which undermines him and makes him look inadequate, making Iago look like the more dominant male. Drown thyself? This is a very strong line which later turns out to be reality, Iago is suggesting that he would never want Roderigo to harm himself, but in Act 5, scene 1 it is through Iagos vicious plans that Roderigo does get hurt, this is an example of a parallel in this play. An excellent example of Iagos viciousness is in The Nunn version of Othello, where Iago is overpowering and stands above everyone else, his tone of voice creates a dark and evil mood and the audience can see his viciousness through e mood felt. So this use of emotive language causes the audience to feel sympathetic towards Roderigo who is constantly being victimised throughout the play. Also literary techniques are used to try and persuade people too, such as the power of three. Put money in thy purse is repeated three times, stressing its importance, almost persuading the reader to believe him. This is also an example of dramatic irony as the audience know what kind of a man Iago is by him secretive motives, such as the line, monstrous birth to the worlds light. Suggesting he wants to complete his ideas and make them work. The shadow on Iago in Otello shows this evil living in Iago and this monster inside him is portrayed with the use of lighting. Similar to that of the sketch by Thomas Stothard The meeting of Othello and Desdemona, c. 799, where Iago was drawn as a dark sinister figure, with light on half of his face, once again an example of Iago being evil. If I were to stage Iagos first soliloquy he would be sat at a dark desk, starring at the ground, symbolising hell and have the lighting so that a dark shadow was formed across half of his face. I would have him dressed in his military uniform just to show the contrast between a true, genuine soldier such as Othello and Iago who is an evil, plotting man. There would be nothing else on stage to create an effect of isolationism, to show that no-one else is near this level of sinister thoughts. Iagos speech suggests two different things in my opinion; when he is talking to other people he is very manipulative and persuasive in getting what he wants. To do this he uses emotive language and rhetorical questions such as, Drown Thyself? This is a technique used to persuade and encourage a person to think and agree with you, which shows quite a sly manner. However when he is on his own he shows a deeply concentrating side, a person who is thinking about their deepest darkest thoughts. With words such as hell and monstrous and hate suggests very strong feelings of anger and in my opinion shows evil. These show how he is questioning himself and his motives, but he I believe is questioning himself to assure himself he is powerful enough to do such things. I would incorporate this into my interpretation; I would have Iago shaking though as he sits, suggesting that he has gone slightly mad with jealousy. Such as in the Miller version, where Iago was twitching and couldnt sit still this showed clearly the strength of his evil inner thoughts. I believe Burge tried to show the audience Iagos speech as a symbol of power. Burge shows Iago as overpowering as he has a very loud tone of voice, he is very persuasive. The camera angle used is close up on him carefully showing his facial expressions and his sly smile which is almost permanently on his face which shows the character of Iago exceptionally well. However there is this shift of behaviour between when he is on his own and when he is with others, because as soon as he is on his own, his movements become twitchier, almost like he doesnt like the depth at which he is thinking at. He argues with himself as well which suggests he doesnt like what he is doing, I havet this is him just justifying himself to himself! The close camera angle shows the real hatred in his eyes when he says, I hate the moor which really emphasises this idea of hatred and the balance of power. Finally there is a sense of dramatic irony because as the audience we know something is going to go wrong so by him thinking about his motives this is a sense of dramatic irony. Cassios a proper man This is ironic as the audience know what Iago thinks of Cassio, however he says this in a way that implies that it is going to be difficult to harm the reputation of Cassio, almost as if Cassio presents a problem. The strength of this interpretation is that it shows that real hatred that Iago possesses for Othello and with those facial expressions this is really implicit. But there is this sense of him becoming almost scarred of himself which I dont think can be believed as he is so definite in his plans and never doubts himself until the end where from this time forth I never will speak a word. Nunn shows Iago to be overpowering again by giving him a brawn voice. But when he is in his soliloquy he is fidgeting and breathing heavily, to add to this atmosphere how he sits at the table causes a shadow to fall over his face emphasises the idea of evil vs. reality. His true thoughts are so strong he is unable to sit still and this difference is shown clearly through the use of movement. This use of separation in the soliloquy is a dramatic technique to give the interpretation to the reader of the true motives of Iago and the way he thinks. This was very effectively done by the twitching during his soliloquy. This interpretation was very effective because of the power of his thoughts which I felt really added to the character of Iago. A Marxist critic may argue that as he cannot sit still his inner thoughts and emotions are being shown through is physical actions, which is clearly represented in Nunns version. In Act 2, scene 3 I would stage Iagos second speech with him standing centre stage, jus as if he was reading a scroll about what his plans were to an audience. The line I play the villain? I would have Iago looking directly at the audience to create tension an atmosphere within the audience. I would have Iago look up to the heavens, just as Othello does in the Nunn version when making his speech to the senators, when Iago says free and honest to emphasis the idea that Iago believes he is equal to a god. Then finally to emphasis the irony of Iago apparently being passionate for his cause I would have him shout to show he was plotting when he says Ill pour this pestilence into his ear and that shall enmesh them all. These will emphasis Iagos anger towards Othello and also show the audience his plans. In this speech it is the first time his plans involve others and are well thought out, which is why I would direct it in this way. In contrast to my view in Otello Iago is trapped in a fortress, possibly trapped in evil and he pulls on a bull ring on a door, this represents Othello being led like a bull. His low voice and shadows shows how evil this character is. There are signs of religion in this version, which were not present in the play because in Elizabethan times because religion was not allowed in theatre but now is. He is shown as a true creature of evil with traits of insanity. I think the weakness in this version is that Iago is too involved with religion and his belief in women, that being that women are a mans property and they can do what they wish with them, is not portrayed enough. Women in Othello are portrayed as fragmented notions of what they really are. Iagos false portrayal of Desdemona comes closest to crumbling when confronted by her plain truth Evelyn Gajowski In conclusion it is clear to say that Iago as a character influences other characters in the play and that his actions are repeated throughout the play. From what is written by Shakespeare many different interpretations can be taken which all lead to different meanings for the audience. Many different interpretations have evolved due to different contexts being intertwined through time. Iago in my opinion is an evil, plotting but influential man.

Intro to Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Intro to Business - Assignment Example In fact, since 2008 when there was economic recession, the company has doubled its revenue and tripled its profit. More so, the company has also recorded significant growth in the period by opening new stores. The success of Patagonia mostly lies on its environmental focus. Indeed, the company has an effective environmental friendly philosophy which mostly contributed to its success during the latest recession. The company’s environmental mission is found in the company’s mission statement which advocates for the production of high quality products with no unnecessary harm to the environment (Martà ­n 1). In fact, the company’s activities aim at solving environmental crisis. The company encourages the repair, recycling, and resale of garments where it makes fleece jackets from recycled bottles (Carus 1). Moreover, it uses solar energy in its headquarters and various stores. Subject to its longtime commitment to environmental issues, Patagonia’s reputation attracted many customers during the recession. Actually, customers were willing to buy T-shirts, wool socks, and light jackets from the company during the recession because they knew Patagonia derived less harm on the environment than other clothing manufacturers. In addition, the company’s strategy to engage in the production of outdoor goods, led to its success during the last recession. Indeed, during the recession, many Americans chose to participate in outdoor recreation instead of foreign travels. This favored Patagonia which was producing outdoor sports apparel at the time. As such, the company recorded huge revenues from outdoor sports apparel (Carus 1). At the same time, the company’s idea to introduce a new line of surf-inspired clothing and beach products also led to its success during the recession as these products became popular at the time. The company also consolidated some global factories and emphasized on online sales thus minimizing the production costs (Martà ­n 1). As such

When Healing becomes a crimeby Kenney ausubel Essay

When Healing becomes a crimeby Kenney ausubel - Essay Example To better understand the nature of this opposition, it would be useful for all to read the book by Kenny Ausubel titled â€Å"When Healing Becomes a Crime †. This work is centered on the account of the story of Harry Hoxsey, the private practitioner of alternative cancer treatment with the allegedly very high rate of successful healings. During the course of his book, the author manages to demonstrate what factors have influenced the development of the current medical practices, and some of those factors are definitely not very comforting. One of the specific topics that were of the great interest to me in the book and turned out to be almost a revelation was the fact that despite testimonies of cancer surgeons about numerous accounts of "people who got well when they werent supposed to" (Ausubel, 2000, ch.2), the medical establishment, represented by the American Medical Association (AMA), acted to suppress alternative cancer therapies under such pretences as for example that their proponents in reality had no medical skill, while AMA itself was lead by Dr. Morris Fishbein who â€Å". . . failed anatomy in medical school . . . never completed his internship . . . [and] never practiced a day of medicine or treated a single patient . . .† (Ausubel, 2000, p.117). And especially unpleasant it was to learn that such persecution was initiated after unsuccessful attempts of Fishbein to buy the formula of Hoxsey`s anti-cancer preparations. All this information impressed be because it convincingly shows that medical pr ogress is unfortunately far from being always directed by the principles from the Hippocratic Oath. Another piece of information that I found interesting was more optimistic, and concerned the description by the author of instances when the protest of general pubic and the larger medical community was able to prevent unethical actions of AMA, like when in a commercially lucrative for them step

Impact of Globalisation on Construction Industry

Impact of Globalisation on Construction Industry In his book The Lexus and the Olive tree Thomas Friedman (2000) described the world as becoming an increasingly interwoven place, and whether you are a company or a country, your threats and opportunities increasingly derive from who you are connected to. Furthermore, it defined globalisation as .a web-like structure .. An inexorable integration of markets, nation-states and technologies to a degree never witnessed before- in a way that is enabling individuals, corporations and nation-states to reach around the world farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before. Globalisation aided by an increased availability of cheap accessible information and technology has broken down to a far greater extent the walls of protectionism and trade barriers making it easier for someone in a remote city of Brazzaville (Congo) to carryout business transactions like buying and selling of shares in the world stock market, engage in joint venture enterprise, carryout international procurement, import and export goods and services from all over the world without leaving the sitting room. This integration of markets and economies with the aid of information and technology described in many writings as globalisation or free market economy has created a huge opportunity for business and investments worldwide. These investments on the other hand creates interdependency on individuals, companies and nation-states performance and high economic risks which has had disastrous effects all over the world like the Latin American debt crisis in the late 1980s, the Southeast Asian recession of the late 90s and the recent world economic recession. This presentation will explain what globalisation means for everybody from the ordinary man in the street to the CEO of a local company and up to a countrys economic and political stability. Section 2 will define globalisation, its features and what it means to everyone, it will also explore the standing of the construction industry in the worlds economy. Section 3 will discuss the impact and challenges of globalisation on the construction and engineering industry aided by a brief imaginary scenario. Aim To discuss the impact of globalisation on construction companies and their products, services and projects. Section 2 Understanding globalisation Discussions of globalisation are currently dominating the intellectual and public discourse. It could mean different things to different people hence the multiple definitions attached to it. While some view it as an evil trend towards dehumanization and economic domination others view it as a multifaceted phenomenon that pauses challenges and offers opportunities (Mahgoub, 2004). The French and other continental europeans for example see globalisation as a new form of imperialism (from the US) or as a new stage of capitalism in the age of electronics (Intriligator, 2004). Intriligator (2004) described it as major increases in worldwide trade and exchanges in an increasingly open, integrated, and borderless international economy, not only in traditional international trade in goods and services, but also in exchanges of currencies; in capital movements; in technology transfer; in people moving through international travel and migration; and in international flow of information and ideas. Finally, Yeung (2009) considers globalisation as necessarily an integrating set of tendencies that operate on the global scale and intensify connections and flows across territorial borders and regions citing what it calls the ruthless penetration of global cultures epitomized by McDonalds, Hollywood movies, MTV, and internet as an example. Govindarajan and Gupta (2000) defined what globalisation could mean to three different level of aggregation: To the entire world, globalisation refers to the aggregate level of economic interdependence among the various countries examplified by the fact that the total asset size of cross-border mergers and acquisitions grew by 15.5 per cent in 1996, 45.2 per cent in 1997 and 73.9 per cent in 1998 (UNCTAD, 1999) To a specific country, globalisation refers to the extent of the interlinkages between that particular countrys economy and the rest of the world measured through exports and imports as a ratio of GDP, inward and outward flow of both foreign direct investment and portfolio investment, and inward and outward flows of royalty payments associated with technology transfer. To a specific industry, globalisation refers to the degree to which, within that industry, a companys competitive position within one country is interdependent with its competitive position in another country measured by the extent of cross-border trade within the industry as a ratio of total worlwide production, extent of cross-border investment as a ratio of total capital invested in that industry, and proportion of industry revenue accounted for by players competing in all major regions of the world. Pre-history But of all the different definitions and interpretations surrounding globalisation, one thing is sure; globalisation is not a new thing. Some economists and historians has suggested that present day globalisation is little more than a return to the world economy of the late 19th and early 20th century, of the century from the congress of Vienna in 1815, the period 1870 to 1913 and from the outbreak of world war 1 in 1914 to the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989 (Intriligator, 2004, Friedman, 2000, Hutton, 2008). At that time borders were relatively open and there were substantial international capital flows and migrations of people, when the major nations of Europe depended critically on international trade as part of the colonial system (Friedman, 2000, Intriligator, 2004). What differentiates this era from the past era of globalisation is the sheer number of people and countries involved and the intensity driven by several unprecedented developments like: Technological advances Technological advances has lowered significantly the cost of everything from transportation, communication, data processing, information storage and retrieval and human resources development. Tools like internet and mobile phones has enhanced the way countries and industries relate to each other bringing everybody closer. It has also contributed to rural developments by empowering emerging nations to shop around in the international arena for partners, investors and best financial deals for their respective projects thereby reducing the level of under-developments and poverty and at the same time providing substantial potential opportunities for MNCs and investors from the developed nations. Many companies locate different parts of their production, research and marketing units in different countries but still bring them together through videoconferencing, internet and emails Trade liberalization: the 1946 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) adopted by many nations has been the key to a series of reductions in the tariffs levied on manufactured goods thereby opening different markets and fostering trade around the world. The agreement which later evolved into the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has been accredited to the rapid developement of the BRIC nations(Brazil, Russia, India and China) whose manufactured products like heavy machineries, technology transfers and consumer goods are being sold worlwide bringing-in lots of foreign reserves and an increase in their Gross Domestic Production (GDP) and an advantageous trade surplus to some countries like China. Also successive rounds of multilateral trade negotiations, together with regional arrangements such as the European Union,the North American Free Trade Agreement, and the Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations agreement, have been major forces for international liberalization (Hufbauer and Warren, 1999) Economic liberalization The gradual elimination of restrictions on Foreign Direct Investments put in place after WWII liberalised international capital movements. Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) means the amount of investment a company from country A can make in country B. These investments could be in the form of acquisitions, joint ventures, management and consultancy, technological transfer or simply building a production unit in a foreign country. The most profound effect has been seen in developing countries, where yearly foreign direct investment flows have increased from an average of less than $10 billion in the 1970s to a yearly average of less than $20 billion in the 1980s, exploding from $26.7billion in 1990 to $179 billion in 1998 and $208 billion in 1999. FDI into developed countries in 2004 rose to $636 billion, from $481 billion in 1998 (source: UNCTAD cited by Jeffery P. Graham, 2005). It has been made possible by the elimination of restrictions by the receiving countries, cheaper and easie r access to information technology and low global communication costs. Others Other factors like: immigration which has witnessed lesser restriction due to lower travelling costs economic shifts in balance and governments policies industrial revolution better construction material and equipment convergence of ideology experienced at the end of the cold war with the survival of capitalism over socialism social welfare reforms contributed a lot in differentiating the era of globalisation we live in now to the era before WW 1 II and have seen the construction and engineering sector experience a radical growth as never seen before. Construction and engineering The construction industry today is a global industry which according to Krisen Moodley et al, (2008) means the operation of contractors and consultants across international markets, in a globalized context with supply chains, specialists, plant and equipment sourced across the world. This section will identify the place of the construction industry in a global environment. Global construction industry. The global construction industry consists of the procurement of new projects, increasing commitment for the provision of services, equipment, components, materials, maintenance, finance, operations and research development (Krisen Moodley, 2008). Private sector participation is actively sought in the whole gamut of project phases-financing, construction, operation, etc. especially in major capital-intensive infrastructure projects. The design and consultancy services traded are knowledge-based and high value-added, with the materials most frequently traded as either resource-specific or technology-dependent (Drewer, 1990). Globalisation pressures have created more opportunities for contractors to enter international construction market which are valued at approximately $3.4 trillion out of which, only 3.4% of its potential volume ($116 billion) is actually open to a fully international competitive market and being done by multinational foreign firms (Seung H. Han et al, 2005). As examples, in Dubai, the consultants, contractors, labour, technology, materials and equipment are sourced from across the world, while the iconic Wembley stadium in London had an Australian contractor, multinational designers, Dutch steel contractors, American security specialists and a range of international materials suppliers (Krisen Moodley, 2008). Major projects like the Suez Canal in 1959-1969, the Panama Canal in 1900-1914, the New Hong Kong Airport, the Channel Tunnel and the Three Gorges Dam in China were carried out by contractors and consultants from different countries. Migration of the construction industrys major players was prompted by international trade and the quest by countries with sufficient non construction resources to satisfy their construction requirements. The oil rich countries of the Middle East were major promoters of this trend during the 1970s and 1980s although it actually started centuries ago during the era of industrialisation. One form of industrialisation then was prefabrication, which is based on the industrial manufacture of building components off-site or near the site. As long as the late 19th century, the British were sending prefabricated housing to Australia and Africa, and in 1830s, the manning portable Colonial Cottage for Emigrants was being produced and shipped to sites around the world (A.B.Ngowi, 2005). Globalisation and construction Earlier success in trade liberalization sparked an expansion of trade and FDI, increasing the demand for cross-border capital flows. This has increased the pressure for liberalization of capital markets, forcing more and more countries to open their capital accounts which in turn led to liberalization of Foreign Direct Investments and privatization tournaments (Dieter Ernst, 2002) providing Global corporations with a greater range of choices for market entry and better access to external resources and capabilities. Today with the aid of globalised economy, technological advancements, free market and cultural harmonization, more construction firms are shifting their strategies towards achieving global market shares through joint ventures, acquisitions and FDI bringing in exchange, technological advances associated with formidable construction technology, enhanced management systems for scheduling, material tracking, subcontractors organisation, and financial capability which enable them to obtain good and low interest finance from major financiers, added Raftery et al, (1998). Institutional, legal and economic reforms that aided the globalisation of the construction and engineering industry include: unified levy system as well as business tax, consumption tax and VAT, economic liberalization, relaxation in foreign equity (allowed up to 100%) in many countries, end to the non-discrimantion for domestic and foreign companies in bidding for public works, deregulation and liberalization measures in housing market especially the abolition of price controls and land use intensity controls, privatization programmes and employment of foreign labour and 100% equity in Build Operate and Transfer concessions (Raftery et al, 1998) amongst others. Section 3 Discussion If cash, commodity and creativity are the key ingredients needed for a country to succeed in the changing global economy, as described by Lyons (2010), what does the construction and Engineering need to succed in this leaderless globalisation system?. The global finance maret from where the industry obtains financing for its activities is so interdependent that it poses a huge threat and opportunity to the industry. A brief ilustration could be helpful in explaining this interdependence and its effects. Case scenario The Salisbury sports club, home of Zimbabwean cricket team in Harare, constructed by the British colonial masters in the days of Rhodesia, once had a capacity of 26,000 people in 1956. 54 years later it can only take 10,000 so the government decides that the stadium capacity needs to be increased to 35,000 to reflect the current passion of cricket in the country. Zimbabwe with an inflation rate of over 900%, can neither afford to finance the project by itself or borrow from the international market and as such, its options are quite limited. It posted an open tender process invitation for the project on their website with preferred procurement method being FDBOT (Finance, Design, Operate and transfer) for a period between 25-30 years. One major obstacle apart from the economy, pointed out by contractors interested in the project is that there still exists restrictions on the ownership of land and public infrastructures in the country so the parliament in Harare had to remove these re strictions to attract foreign investors to their project. Being a major project of over  £300m, the winning consortia led by Arup Engineering was made up of Barclays bank investment banking (supported by Chinese investment fund, pension fund from canada and mutual fund from the US), Masuita electrical company from Japan and Usiminas Steel company from Brazil. With the restriction lifted and the contract signed, the project started with the major contractor Arup bringing in technological prowess, management know-how and the money. Local construction industries were used for their understanding of the area and provision of cheap labour while plants and equipments were supplied by a company from neighbouring South Africa. 10 months into the project, while the individual zimbabwean involved with the project was just about getting to reap the benefit of a steady job and income, the Thailandese government posted a glum economic expectation and insinuated doubt on the countries capacity to pay back loans from the world bank. This less than expected prediction sent a wave to the stock market in the asian region prompting investors to start dumping Thailandese bonds and taking their money to invest elsewhere. The question is: what has Thailand economy got to do with cricket stadium in Harare? Well, this massive sales made asian bonds as a whole lose almost 50 to 60% of their value which means that banks (including Barclays) and funds including (Pension funds from Canada) which invested in those bonds lost a considerable amount of their investment. But unconsciously, in a rush to put their money in a secured investment, the investors pushed the price of commodities up especially steel that rose from  £250/ tonne to  £435/tonne. It wasnt long before the stadium project in Harare grinded to a halt. Reasons being that Barclays is the red and are currently speaking with the Qatari Investment group for bailout which if it fails, they could end up being owned by the taxpayers, the pension fund has suffered huge losses and are restructuring their management and this new team are reviewing all investments, the doubled price of steel means that Usiminas cannot deliver at the contracted price and wishes to revise the terms of the contract, the delays meant that expected date for the inaguration of the stadium was delayed by what could be one year and brings with it a substantial loss of fund from patronisers, the government of Harare are helpless, they have no control over immediate or future event concerning the project. Analysis Although this is an imaginary scenario, it reflects what globalisation can bring to an industry like construction (expectations and pit falls) and how helpless the feeling can be when the table turns. All because of the interdependent global economy, trade and capital liberalization. Challenges Globalisation represents a major challenge and at the same time an unprecedented opportunity for the construction and engineering industry in terms of greater access to finance for concession projects etc, greater accessibility to FDI, greater specialization and division of labour on a world-wide level, greater opportunity for the local industry to acquire technological know-how and strategic positioning for the established company for a more competitive market. According to YIP et al (2006), companies with an established source of competitive advantage from its home or other existing country markets often finds it easier to increase global market share by adding new countries rather than by trying to increase share in existing countries. This gives them competitive edge in an increasingly globalised market open to stiff global competition. Competition stretched in all areas of the industry from products and services to quality of those products and services, cost, time and process innovation. Scale Although in a globalised construction market, there seems to be something for everyone, most projects are large scale construction which only the large technologically qualified contractors can carry out due to, sometimes added prequalification requirements in the bidding process, one which requires firms to demonstrate having secured certain amount of contracts with comparable magnitude and complexity which in turn, precludes medium-size operators or contractors. Growth That the industry has gone global does not mean fatter pockets. Although rationalization of production and the spread of technology including pressures for continual innovation globally will lead to increased productivity and efficiency it also drive costs down. Research has shown that profitability declines (fig.1) as companies begin to internationalise their business due to the difficulties of learning how to do so especially in different cultural setting. It gradually increases as the objective, of increasing market share, is achieved. Protectionism Concerns has risen as to the challenges globalisation poses to the construction and engineering sectors in emerging economies because of the divergence or polarisation of profits worldwide where bigger foreign industries backed by their governments and financial institutions witness a rapid growth while the locals industry play catch up. Globalisation to E C means gradual erosion of barriers that hinder foreign companies from participating in local markets hence eliminating the distinction between local, regional and national markets. It means that international firms with capability continues to penetrate local markets leaving local consultants and contractors underdeveloped and in most areas out of the business. This might lead to protectionism or trade war as we are beginning to see with the currency war going on between the US and China. Vulnerability Also critics has underlined the perceived loss of sovereignty of national governments and political leaders due to the continuous influence of the investors (including MNCs) and international financiers in state affairs in an effort to protect their respective interests. Mutual vulnerability due to the fragility and interdependence of the international economic system, and the distribution of wealth created through globalisation which has seen more nations grow faster than others. While globalisation has been spearheaded by the cross-border operations of transnational corporations, the spatial transfer of business and industrial practices is by no means unproblematic. There remain significant place-based institutional limits to the globalisation of business cultures; and economic practices. For example, while capital can be transferred almost effortless across space, labour remains highly place-bound and locally embedded (Yeung, 2009) Finance and economy Shift in economic balance brought by globalisation means different challenges for developed and emerging markets. While the developed-world are expected to cut back their fiscal deficit, emerging world are to maintain low debt-to-GDP ratios, their undervalued currencies, low-cost labour, high savings rate, exports and investment in infrastructure to sustain global uncertainties. Globalisation has favoured construction industries from developed contries, constraining the involvement of lesser developed industries as they lack access to cheap financial markets and technology, making it difficult for them to compete. They can only show advantage perhaps in the area of labour deployment. Regional instability Globalisation has increased the risk of major regional and global instabilities due to the interdependence of economies. Its negative effect is devastating for the construction and engineering sector as witnessed by the recent global economic meltdown. Many countries like Spain, Italy, Portugal and Greece that sustained a major part of their economy on the construction industry suffered heavily and have been finding it hard to restructure their respective economies ever since. The scars of the negative effect of economic interdependence could still be seen in those countries and others in the middle east like Dubai where loads of buildings remain uncompleted and the completed ones remain empty because the banks cannot lend to buyers, buyers cannot buy houses, the builder cannot sell hence cannot pay either the borrowed loans or the building contractors. Local contractors In Spain for example the recent economic meltdown forced one third of local contractors to close down while the remaining ones are with a considerably reduced portfolio because of their interface with major international contractors and consultants with global reputation and work portfolio that simply went burst when their cash flow seized. Some fortunate international contractors and consultants including David Langdon had to be absorbed by bigger and more stable companies to remain in the business. Impact on businesses Competition Globalisation forces down the price of construction services by reducing the ability of firms to obtain excess margins through competitive pressure. Also, in the face of a margin squeeze, firms seek to reduce cost through the use of best available technology these cost reductions are in turn passed on to consumers in the form of lower prices. Companies in developed markets suffering from slower economic conditions are looking even more urgently to emerging markets, where more robust economies, substantial oil revenues and major deficits in the existing infrastructure spell opportunity, thereby fostering competition . Additionally, certain mature markets also seek to recruit offshore and bring in talent to meet demand on domestic projects (Hook, 2008). Costs Globalisation allows construction and engineering firms to achieve economies of scale as they are increasingly liberated from the size constraints of their home markets. In technical terms, the demand elasticity coefficients facing individual firms increase with globalisation (Hufbauer and Warren, 1999). They will also need to lobby to lower barriers that protect their suppliers, so they can take advantage of the law of one price in input markets. If inputs remain high or suppliers are unreliable, firms will be forced to relocate to countries where purchased input prices are lower and quality higher, finalised Hufbauer and warren, (1999). Procurement Globalisation has changed the way procurement is done. Participation of foreign contractors in domestic markets in the 1970s was as a result of pressure from donor agencies as a price for accepting their aid or funding, their projects. Today, advocates for trade not aid are thanking globalisation for creating opportunities for investment exemplified by the Chinese investment in infrastructure in Africa which according to McRae (2010) is much larger than all Western aid programmes put together- real trade not aid. FDI still remains the preferred method but other means in which foreign investors may acquire an effective voice in an enterprise rather than through FDI include subcontracting, management contracts, turnkey arrangements, franchising, leasing, licensing and production sharing (UNCTAD, 2002) Commodities Globalisation also have a huge impact on the factors of production which Bryan (2010) considers as where the real integration of the worlds economy begins. Bryan identified commodities, capital and labour as crucial towards understanding structural economic issues. On commodities it means that most natural resources and manufactured commodities like steel, aluminium, bauxite, crude oil, iron ore, with a global common price attached to it are expensive to producers in countries with weaker currencies. Simply put, commodity prices are too high in emerging-market countries which mean they use fewer commodities than they would and too low in developed-world countries which means they use more commodities than they should. Furthermore the fact that commodities prices are set in truly global markets where nations have little power over prices suggests that financial tension will build earlier and with greater volatility. Growth and cooperation Globalisation has brought growth to emerging countries that has invested substantially in the built environment; building and infrastructure; and has a huge dependency on imported construction services like the Asian countries. It brought huge profits as well to the contractors involved accounting for around 33% of their international earnings in 1996 (ENR, 1997). There is far more cooperation, consumer value changes, and the blurring of business borderlines in this global environment as global construction has to create and manage new forms of relationships with suppliers, producers, clients, financiers, governments and third sector groups (Moodley et al, 2008). The more usual arrangement for large projects now being for contractors, developers and financiers to form consortia in order to seize these players respective expertise, in addition to reducing project risks. This formation of strategic alliances would be an effective way of overcoming weakness or draw-backs that a firm may be exposed to in the increasingly competitive domestic or international setting (Raftery et al, 1998). For the local industry, it provides an opportunity to work with and comply with international standards, increase their efficiency and quality of work hence preparing them to be more competitive. Domestic policies Governments in a bid to attract increased foreign private sector equity into domestic construction markets are carrying out further institutional reforms, particularly in the banking and financial sectors and adopting certain measures like: Removing or relaxing barriers in the tax repatriation of profits Adopting a transaprent tax policy by way of granting equal tax treatment to foreign and local companies Adopting double taxation relief agreements with other countries Offering preferential interest rates for joint ventures where there is equity majority by local partners Entering bilateral agreements with foreign governments to guarantee safety of foreign investments Relaxed imposed ceilings on foreign equity on construction and development firms These policies as described by raftery et al (1998) brings in advantages like the interaction of foreign and local partners complementing each other. while the domestic associates having better understanding of the local working conditions takes care of the sources of labour and materials, the foreign firms bring into the joint venture their higher expertise in finance, technology and management know-how, creating a healthier, robust environment for private sector investment. Section 4 Conclusion This paper analysed the origin of the new era of globalisation the world lives in today, defining what it means to different aggregations. Construction as an industry has contributed enormously to the worlds economic growth with its estimated value of US$4trillion but has suffered equally when the world economy went burst due to its global interface with the financiers of their worldwide activities. Globalisation brought far more cooperation, consumer value changes, and the blurring of business borderlines in this global environment as consultants, contractor, designers, financiers, governments, labour, material suppliers, technology suppliers, plant and equipment specialists all converge in a new form of relationship aimed at a better working environment towards delivering a common project. Deregulations, affordable technology, trade liberalization and economic market policies has been the main drive for globalisation and the same vehicle has been responsible for driving many construction firms, especially from developed countries, through Foreign Direct Investments (FDI), joint ventures, acquisition etc into local and domestic construction markets both in developed and emerging countries. The impact has been huge from high profits and stronger multinationals to technological trans